Introduction In the first half of this century we learnt that the community cannot achieve its aims without the help of government providing essential services and a backdrop of security. In the second half of the century we learnt that the government cannot achieve its aims without the energy and commitment of others – voluntary organizations, businesses and crucially, the wider public. That is why the third Sector is such an important part of the Third Way, (Blair, 1998).
This paper triggers a recollection of memories when some of us where growing up in towns and villages surrounded with canopy of trees within our village cathedrals. Much was not known of man’s tree health benefits. As a result of such ignorance today we live in concrete environments without trees around us or on our streets. This paper however, intends to trigger that reminder for the present need of street tree planting development for our local environments in Manyu as well as a road map for a local environmental action plan (LEAP), to try and bring to the attention of our people the importance of maintaining the biodiversity of Manyu planet Earth and of carrying out our daily lives in a fashion that ensures our offspring will inherit a cleaner, greener, more ecologically sustainable Manyu environment through this literature review..
What Mamfe- Manyu Division could look like in 2020
The specific objectives of the paper were to:
Review the published literature from the biological, medical and social sciences to determine whether there are quantifiable physical and psychological benefits to human health, and to the indoor and outdoor environments, that could be linked to street planting in Manyu.
Recommend strategies based on proven science that could form the basis for unique approaches to marketing street plants based on improving lifestyle, health, and the world in which people live, work and play in our towns and villages.
Identify new opportunities for domestic marketing and increased sales of street tree planting beyond the traditional concepts of beautification of the outdoor environments.
Provide a functional bibliography of sources of further information that could be quoted to justify any future marketing claims if necessary.
Street Tree planting :
Given the “scotching heat” that burns down our necks in Manyu due the tropical sun, it has to be acknowledged that many studies have found significant energy savings for the cooling of buildings when trees are planted in streets (Rosenfeld et al., 1998; Akbari, 2002). The trees provide shade and reduce the amount of solar radiation hitting a building, thereby reducing energy requirements for cooling that building. Akbari (2002) estimated that planting one shade tree in an urban setting can avoid the combustion of 18 kg/yr of carbon due to savings in demand for air-conditioning. Plants can be used to manage air movement and wind to create more comfortable and pleasant microclimates (Robinette, 1972).
BENEFITS:
Increased Property Values
Private landscapes can influence habitat and water quality, among other environmental attributes (Helfand et al., 2006). To capture these benefits, landscapes that incorporate ecologically beneficial land cover patterns have been designed on different scales for private homes (Nassauer, 1993). Many studies have documented the positive effect of landscaped yards on the value of residential homes.
Des Rosiers et al. (2002) summarized a number of past studies dealing with the effect of landscaping on house values (Des Rosiers et al., 2002). The following table outlines the results of these studies.
As well, Des Rosiers et al., (2002) surveyed 760 single-family homes sold between 1993 and 2000 in Quebec. The survey focused on landscaping characteristics of homes and their immediate environment, i.e., the neighbourhood visible from the property.
Their results found the following relationships regarding landscapes and property values:
. A tree cover between the property and its immediate neighbourhood raises the house value.
. For bungalows and cottages, the higher the percentage of ground cover (lawn, flower arrangements, rock plants, etc), the higher the value of the house.
. The presence of a hedge or a landscaped wall raises a property’s value by nearly 4%.
. The presence of a landscaped patio can result in as high as a 12.4% premium.
. Landscaped curbs also provide value, as high as a 4.4% premium.
Overall, a 7.7% market premium for either a typical bungalow or cottage was estimated could be achieved in the presence of different landscaping variables and the presence of a hedge.
Municipal Economic Benefits:
Effective landscape design can also add value to municipalities and communities. The presence of landscaping has already been shown to increase property values, but it is also a wise city investment for many reasons:
• It increases community health and vitality through civic involvement in beautification projects.
• Beautification projects represent a sense of pride and value by residents and businesses.
• Plants stabilize soil and reduce runoff in open spaces (refer to section 3.0).
• Natural habitats protect biodiversity (refer to section 3.0).
• Low maintenance open spaces and xeriscaping reduce maintenance costs.
• Evergreen trees reduce the impact of cooling wind in rainy season and deciduous trees provide shade in the dry season.
• Increases public safety and reduces crime and accidents.
(Gardner, 2006)
Community Beautification and Pride:
Plants play a role in the development of healthy communities by:
1) providing a physical condition or appearance that makes people proud to be considered part of the community and by enhancing the economic and social condition of the community;
2) providing opportunities for sharing value interests and commitments; and
3) providing a surrounding that is more comfortable physically in which to live and work (Relf, 1992).
Passing time in Mamfe:
This is the opposite of the above, stressful and uncomfortable environment for our people. Street trees planting will give our communities the beautification and pride described above.
Research at the University of Washington examined how trees were valued in the community, across eight revitalized communities in the United States (Center for Urban Horticulture, 1998b). Participants of the study were asked to aesthetically rank 32 different scenes. Overall, the survey found that retail shopping districts with an orderly and well-maintained planting scheme, including both trees and accessory vegetation, received the highest visual quality ratings. Manyu can have this vision and reinvent herself by attracting better quality people to retire and invest there. As seen in the picture above, a dry scotching environment drives people and businesses away.
A mail survey of licensed drivers in Washington State was used to evaluate the perceptions of places that people may associate with roadside landscape (Center for Urban Horticulture, 2000). The study was aimed at determining whether the amount of green space and vegetation along the road and in a community influenced what people thought of the community. The survey found that the presence of trees and green space positively influenced consumers’ attitudes about the character of a place, and also the prices that shoppers were willing to pay in local businesses (Center for Urban Horticulture, 2000).
Furthermore, trees and landscaping in neighbourhood commercial districts will create a pleasant space that attracts patrons in Manyu. A study of business owners and business association staff indicated that trees and landscaping attracted patronage through the following means:
• Acting as an outdoor extension of the business’ customer service commitment.
• Developing a distinctive identity for and defining the boundaries of a business district, which encourages repeat visits. (Center for Urban Horticulture, 1998a)
Privacy and Security:
Trees and shrubs can be used to build both physical and visual barriers, providing security and/or privacy. With specific reference to privacy, Robinette (1972) discusses that there are varying degrees of privacy and different lines of sight that should be considered in planting design. Thus, the density of planting and the types of plants used are necessary considerations. Privacy can bring with it a certain amount of security but hedges can be used to screen (block from view) a security fence that provides the physical secure barrier (Robinette, 1972).
Recreation, Parks, Sports and Fitness :
Mamfe-Manyu, is an example of a community that should be attempting to revitalize itself with the use of landscaping schemes (Burchfield, 2004). One of the primary efforts should be the restoration of town/city parks and recreation areas. Mamfe as the central location of many communities can attract a lot of activities, athletics, businesses etc. The global promoter of sports, the Olympic movement, has acknowledged the importance of the environment by incorporating Agenda 21 into their action plan (International Olympic Committee, 1999). Agenda 21 is the global plan for sustainable development which has been defined as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." That emerged from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in 1992. Recently the committee developed a guide for integrating sport, environment and sustainable development. The document covers many aspects of environmental protection and improvement. One aspect, which is of particular interest to the horticultural industry, is the promotion of biologically diverse environments. The horticultural industry is the provider of plants within built environments and sporting venues (International Olympic Committee, 2007). In addition to the opportunity for the horticulture industry, there are multiple spin-off benefits to the host city (from the Olympics initiative) as outlined above.
Tourism:
A study conducted by Evans and Malone (Relf, 1992) looked at the hotel/tourism industry at Opryland. The study found that the landscaping positively impacted a number of things including a high occupancy rate (85%), numerous awards, and continuous expansion. Additionally, the higher rate charged for rooms overlooking the scenery, plus the high occupancy rate can translate into much revenue in additional annual income.
The above studies show that landscaping brings positive economic benefits to communities. It encourages tourism, recreation, and attracts businesses to the area and all of this translates into more finances flowing into the community.
Environmental Benefits of Street Planting:
I believe that by some time in 2020 over half the Manyu population will live in an urban environment (Worldwatch Institute, 2007). The urbanization of Manyu would be reducing the connectivity humans have with the natural environment. Despite human disconnectedness that we shall have from the natural world, street plants will continue to provide environmental benefits at every spatial level: global, local and individual. This section outlines these environmental benefits of street planting in the following: oxygen production, pollution amelioration, indoor air quality improvements, water management and erosion control, plants in ecological sewage and wastewater treatment systems, wildlife attraction and preservation, windbreaks and noise amelioration, urban shade, green space and location of plants. In brief, let me dwell into some of these environmental benefits slightly:
Oxygen Production :
The fundamental benefit provided by plants is their production of oxygen; thus providing the atmosphere with the element that allows humans to breathe and live on this planet. Oxygen is produced by the plant during the process of photosynthesis as shown in Figure 3.1. Photosynthesis is how plants produce their food (energy). It requires carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. The outputs of photosynthesis are sugars and oxygen. On average, a tree can produce 260 pounds of oxygen per year and two mature trees can produce sufficient oxygen for a family of four (Environment Canada, 2005). Similarly, a natural turf area just 50 feet by 50 feet releases enough oxygen for a family of four (Virginia State University, 2004).
Pollution Amelioration:
Trees and plants have been labeled as the “lungs of cities” (McPherson, 2005) because they have the ability to remove contaminants from the air that is breathed. Acting as natural filters and reducing air pollution, it has been shown that plants generate health benefits by reducing the mortality rate and reducing visits to the hospital (Powe and Willis, 2004). A few ways in which plants reduce air pollution are as follows:
Absorption of gaseous pollutants through their leaves, e.g., ozone, nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide.
Further reducing ozone concentrations at ground level by reducing the temperature via evapotranspiration as mentioned above.
Collection of dust, ash, pollen and other particulate matter on their leaves hence reducing its presence in the air breathed.
Releasing of oxygen, as mentioned above, which increases the quality of the air for human use.
(McPherson, 2005)
Indoor Air Quality Improvement:
As our population continues to urbanize, the number of people spending 80-90% of their time indoors (Orwell et al., 2004) is also increasing. Many studies have reported that the concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are higher indoors than outdoors (Sakai et al., 2004). Plants continue to function as atmospheric filters indoors as they do outdoors and enhance the air quality of confined environments.
As with the outdoor environment, particulate matter such as dust, ash, pollen and smoke are also irritants and pollutants of indoor air. Lohr and Pearson-Mims (1996) found that the levels of particulate matter accumulation in a room were lower when plants were present than when they were not. In addition to finding a reduction in particulate matter it was also found that relative humidity was slightly higher when plants were present. An increase in relative humidity, particularly in heated environments, increases the comfort level. Another means by which indoor plants improve enclosed environments is by removing offensive odours from the air (Oyabu et al., 2003).
Water Management and Erosion Control (retention, filtration, purification, flood control)
There are significant benefits that can be gained from plants with respect to water management. As the discussion above pointed out, plants can be used to remove pollution from soils and air. In addition, plants can also remove pollution through filtration and purification processes and can also assist in flood control by retaining water.
Using plants to reduce run-off and pollutants can occur in many situations. As watersheds increasingly become urban landscapes the amount of penetrable ground is reduced. This can be improved by using “rain gardens”, a small swale or retention ditch, near impenetrable surfaces (e.g. roads, parking lots). This creates areas for water to be cleaned and reduces the speed with which water re-enters the watershed (University of Wisconsin, 2004).
For clarification purposes, I include in this paper a list of trees for Street and Avenue planting which are entirely hardy under all conditions. These standard types of shade trees can be planted almost under any condition of climate or soil, and be rest assured that they will develop an interesting normal habit of growth. This list may be termed “the TEN best trees” for general use in Street and Avenue planting in city, suburban, and urban districts:
1) Acer Saccharum Sugar Marple
2) Quercus alba White Oak
3) Quercus Coccinea Scarlet Oak
4) Quercus rubra Red Oak
5) Quercus Velutina Black Oak
6) Tilia Euchora Crimean Linden
7) Tilea Tomentosa Silver Linden
8) Tilea Vulgaris Common Linden
9) Ulmus Americana American Elm
10) Ulmus Glabra Scotch Elm
Conclusions:
It is my belief that this study clearly illustrates that there are significant benefits from street tree planting in Manyu, whether economic, environmental or lifestyle. Many of these benefits, however, are not well known or understood within the general population. As a result, there is a considerable opportunity to educate the masses based on the benefits identified throughout this literature review. This essay has discussed planning and management of Manyu urban street tree planting and suggests a model for urban planning. Whilst street planting of trees can beautify the communities, it is not without its difficulty to adequate funding that this might entail, increased citizen demands for municipal services, low visibility, lack of public advocates, dispersal of tree management responsibilities, limited recognition of benefits of urban trees, and environmental stress. To succeed I do suggests that the wider public to get involve to the success of future urban tree planning. The planning process must be comprehensive in scope, including municipal, national agency - the Forestry Department, and private lands. Planning must also incorporate a broad range of benefits such as aesthetic or visual quality, microclimate modification, energy, conservation, environmental suitability and the fulfilment of community needs. Community participation can occur on three basic levels: official lay groups, community activist groups and private individuals or corporations. Education will also provide a necessary support to this community involvement. Finally, the essay emphasizes the need for establishing goals. The goals suggested include: economic survival by attracting tourism and businesses, neighbourhood vitality, preservation of city character and urban health and liveability. Discussion was heavily based on developed counties, predominately the United States. Given these conclusions, some obvious recommendations emerged and are outlined below.
The natural beauty of street lined with trees:
Recommendations: • Tell the people about the ‘big picture’ benefits of street planting provides and how comprehensive the ‘good news’ story is.
• Study and emulate the successful programs of Europe, the US and Australia.
• Work more closely with municipalities to show them how street plants can improve their bottom line, make citizens happier and more proud of their community, and reduce crime and violence in inner city locales.
• Develop national-class centres of street tree excellence that will be immune to the political nature of government and changing forestry Department policy.
Future Research Opportunities:
• Investigate opportunities presented by climate change.
o Greater variability in temperature, day/night temperatures, water and more extreme events may make today’s climatic conditions unbearable.
o This research finding is not exhaustive but merely a scratch of the problems behind problems facing Manyu. It is therefore recommended that further research into same or other areas of our environmental problems be conducted to ascertain ways of exploring tangible solutions to them in future.
References :
Complete list of references and tables for this article will be posted on the MEDWC website: http://www.medwc.org/ under publications.
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